What Stylistic Traditions Did the Etruscan Use in Their Art?

Three related alphabets used to write Georgian

Georgian
damts'erloba "script" in Mkhedruli
Script type	Alphabet
Fourth dimension period	AD 430^[1] – present
Direction	left-to-right
Languages	Georgian other Kartvelian languages
Related scripts
Parent systems	Uncertain, alphabetical club modelled on Greek Georgian
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Geor, , Georgian (Mkhedruli and Mtavruli) – Georgian (Mkhedruli) `Geok, 241` – Khutsuri (Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri)
Unicode
Unicode alias	Georgian
Unicode range	U+10A0–U+10FF Georgian U+2D00–U+2D2F Supplement U+1C90–U+1CBF Extended
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, come across Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Georgian scripts
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Land	Georgia
Reference	01205
Region	Caucasus Eastern Europe
Inscription history
Inscription	2016 (11 session)

The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli. Although the systems differ in advent, their letters share the aforementioned names and alphabetical order and are written horizontally from left to right. Of the 3 scripts, Mkhedruli, once the civilian royal script of the Kingdom of Georgia and more often than not used for the purple charters, is now the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages, whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only by the Georgian Orthodox Church building, in formalism religious texts and iconography.^[ii]

Georgian scripts are unique in their advent and their exact origin has never been established; however, in strictly structural terms, their alphabetical gild largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet, with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds, which are grouped at the end.^[3] ^[iv] Originally consisting of 38 letters,^[v] Georgian is before long written in a 33-letter alphabet, equally five messages are obsolete. The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies. Mingrelian uses 36: 30-three that are current Georgian letters, one obsolete Georgian alphabetic character, and two boosted letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan. Laz uses the same 33 current Georgian messages as Mingrelian plus that aforementioned obsolete letter and a letter borrowed from Greek for a total of 35. The fourth Kartvelian language, Svan, is not ordinarily written, just when it is, it uses Georgian letters every bit utilized in Mingrelian, with an boosted obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels.^[two] ^[6]

Georgian scripts were granted the national status of intangible cultural heritage in Georgia in 2015^[seven] and inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2016.^[viii]

The three Georgian scripts: Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri, and Mkhedruli.

Origins [edit]

The origin of the Georgian script is poorly known, and no total understanding exists amongst Georgian and strange scholars as to its date of creation, who designed the script, and the main influences on that procedure.

The showtime attested version of the script is Asomtavruli, which dates back to the 5th century; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries. Virtually scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia (not to be confused with the Iberian Peninsula), a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli.^[ix] The alphabet was therefore most probably created betwixt the conversion of Iberia under Male monarch Mirian 3 (326 or 337) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430,^[9] contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet.^[x] It was commencement used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian, by monks in Georgia and Palestine.^[iv] Professor Levan Chilashvili's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions, discovered by him at the ruined boondocks of Nekresi, in Georgia'southward easternmost province of Kakheti, in the 1980s, to the 1st or second century has non been accepted.^[11]

A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval relate Lives of the Kings of Kartli (ca. 800),^[4] assigns a much before, pre-Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet, and names King Pharnavaz I (3rd century BC) equally its inventor. This account is now considered legendary, and is rejected by scholarly consensus, as no archaeological confirmation has been establish.^[4] ^[12] ^[xiii] Rapp considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to rebut the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots, and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of bones social institutions.^[14] Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternative interpretation of the tradition, in the pre-Christian use of strange scripts (alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet) to write downward Georgian texts.^[15]

Some other indicate of contention amongst scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process. Co-ordinate to medieval Armenian sources and a number of scholars, Mesrop Mashtots, generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet, also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets. This tradition originates in the works of Koryun, a fifth-century historian and biographer of Mashtots,^[16] and has been quoted past Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell,^[17] ^[18] just has been rejected by Georgian scholarship and some Western scholars who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation.^[4] In his written report on the history of the invention of the Armenian alphabet and the life of Mashtots, the Armenian linguist Hrachia Acharian strongly defended Koryun every bit a reliable source and rejected criticisms of his accounts on the invention of the Georgian script by Mashtots.^[19] Acharian dated the invention to 408, iv years after Mashtots created the Armenian alphabet (he dated the latter event to 404).^[twenty] Some Western scholars quote Koryun's claims without taking a stance on its validity^[21] ^[22] or concede that Armenian clerics, if non Mashtots himself, must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script.^[iv] ^[13] ^[23]

Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet, as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more than by the Greek alphabet, or by Semitic alphabets such equally Aramaic.^[15] Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems, most notably the society and numeric value of letters.^[3] ^[4] Some scholars take also suggested certain pre-Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers every bit a possible inspiration for particular letters.^[24]

Asomtavruli [edit]

Asomtavruli (Georgian: ასომთავრული ; Georgian pronunciation: [ɑsɔmtʰɑvruli]) is the oldest Georgian script. The name Asomtavruli ways "capital letters", from aso ( ასო ) "letter" and mtavari ( მთავარი ) "main/head". It is also known every bit Mrgvlovani (Georgian: მრგვლოვანი ) "rounded", from mrgvali ( მრგვალი ) "round", then named considering of its circular alphabetic character shapes. Despite its proper noun, this "capital" script is unicameral.^[25]

The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century^[26] and are Bir el Qutt^[27] and the Bolnisi inscriptions.^[28]

From the 9th century, Nuskhuri script started becoming dominant, and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced. However, epigraphic monuments of the tenth to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script. Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative. In the majority of ninth-century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script, Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters.^[29] However, some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli tin be found until the 11th century.^[30]

Course of Asomtavruli letters [edit]

In early Asomtavruli, the letters are of equal meridian. Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli, like that of Greek, was initially boustrophedon, though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the correct.^[31]

In most Asomtavruli letters, straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles. The just letter with acute angles is Ⴟ (ჯ jani). In that location have been various attempts to explicate this exception. Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ, composed of the Ⴈ (ი ini) and Ⴕ (ქ kani).^[32] Co-ordinate to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze, the cross-like shape of letter of the alphabet jani indicates the end of the alphabet, and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter of the alphabet taw (), Greek chi (Χ), and Latin X,^[33] though these letters practice not accept that office in Phoenician, Greek, or Latin.

Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George Iv of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script, 1200–1210 AD.

From the 7th century, the forms of some letters began to change. The equal height of the letters was abandoned, with messages acquiring ascenders and descenders.^[34] ^[35]

Asomtavruli letters
Ⴀ ani	Ⴁ bani	Ⴂ gani	Ⴃ doni	Ⴄ eni	Ⴅ vini	Ⴆ zeni	Ⴡ he	Ⴇ tani	Ⴈ ini	Ⴉ k'ani	Ⴊ lasi	Ⴋ mani	Ⴌ nari	Ⴢ hie	Ⴍ oni	Ⴎ p'ari	Ⴏ zhani	Ⴐ rae
Ⴑ sani	Ⴒ t'ari	Ⴣ vie	ႭჃ Ⴓ uni	Ⴔ pari	Ⴕ kani	Ⴖ ghani	Ⴗ q'ari	Ⴘ shini	Ⴙ chini	Ⴚ tsani	Ⴛ dzili	Ⴜ ts'ili	Ⴝ ch'ari	Ⴞ khani	Ⴤ qari	Ⴟ jani	Ⴠ hae	Ⴥ hoe

Asomtavruli illumination [edit]

In Nuskhuri manuscripts, Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals. The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text. In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts, Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally past size and sometimes by existence written in cinnabar ink. Later, from the 10th century, the letters were illuminated. The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text. For instance, in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era, when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia, capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals.^[36]

Decorative Asomtavruli capital messages, მ (m) and თ (t), 12–13th century.

From the 11th-century "limb-flowery", "limb-arrowy" and "limb-spotty" decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed. The first 2 are institute in 11th- and 12th-century monuments, whereas the tertiary one is used until the 18th century.^[37] ^[38]

Importance was attached as well to the colour of the ink itself.^[39]

Asomtavruli letter of the alphabet დ (doni) is often written with ornament effects of fish and birds.^[twoscore]

The "Curly" decorative course of Asomtavruli is besides used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other, or the smaller messages are written inside other letters. It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books, although there are complete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli "Curly" form only.^[41]

The championship of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli "Curly" decorative form.

Handwriting of Asomtavruli [edit]

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter:^[42]

Nuskhuri [edit]

Nuskhuri (Georgian: ნუსხური ; Georgian pronunciation: [nusxuri]) is the 2d Georgian script. The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( ნუსხა ), meaning "inventory" or "schedule". Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts. The combination is called Khutsuri (Georgian: ხუცური , "clerical", from khutsesi ( ხუცესი "cleric"), and it was principally used in hagiography.^[43]

Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century every bit a graphic variant of Asomtavruli.^[9] The oldest inscription is establish in the Ateni Sioni Church building and dates to 835 AD.^[44] The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 Advertizement.^[45] Nuskhuri becomes ascendant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century.^[43]

Form of Nuskhuri letters [edit]

Nuskhuri letters vary in summit, with ascenders and descenders, and are slanted to the correct. Letters take an athwart shape, with a noticeable trend to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli. This enabled faster writing of manuscripts.^[46]

→

Asomtavruli letters ო (oni) and ჳ (vie). A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri, უ uni.

Nuskhuri letters
ⴀ ani	ⴁ bani	ⴂ gani	ⴃ doni	ⴄ eni	ⴅ vini	ⴆ zeni	ⴡ he	ⴇ tani	ⴈ ini	ⴉ k'ani	ⴊ lasi	ⴋ mani	ⴌ nari	ⴢ hie	ⴍ oni	ⴎ p'ari	ⴏ zhani	ⴐ rae
ⴑ sani	ⴒ t'ari	ⴣ vie	ⴍⴣ ⴓ uni	ⴔ pari	ⴕ kani	ⴖ ghani	ⴗ q'ari	ⴘ shini	ⴙ chini	ⴚ tsani	ⴛ dzili	ⴜ ts'ili	ⴝ ch'ari	ⴞ khani	ⴤ qari	ⴟ jani	ⴠ hae	ⴥ hoe

Note: Without proper font support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters.

Handwriting of Nuskhuri [edit]

The following tabular array shows the stroke social club and management of each Nuskhuri letter:^[47]

Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today [edit]

Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography, murals, and exterior design, specially in stone engravings.^[48] Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences, as in the Latin script, but it did not grab on.^[49] Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church building alongside Mkhedruli. Patriarch Ilia Ii of Georgia called on people to apply all 3 Georgian scripts.^[50]

Mkhedruli [edit]

Mkhedruli (Georgian: მხედრული ; Georgian pronunciation: [mxɛdruli]) is the 3rd and current Georgian script. Mkhedruli, literally significant "cavalry" or "military", derives from mkhedari ( მხედარი ) meaning "horseman", "knight", "warrior"^[51] and "cavalier".^[52]

Mkhedruli is bicameral, with capital letter letters that are called Mkhedruli Mtavruli ( მხედრული მთავრული ) or simply Mtavruli ( მთავრული ; Georgian pronunciation: [mtʰɑvruli]). Nowadays, Mtavruli is typically used in all-caps text in titles or to emphasize a give-and-take, though in the belatedly 19th and early 20th centuries it was occasionally used, as in Latin and Cyrillic scripts, to capitalize proper nouns or the kickoff discussion of a sentence.^[53]

Mkhedruli start appears in the 10th century. The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is constitute in Ateni Sioni Church building dating dorsum to 982 AD. The second oldest Mkhedruli-written text is found in the 11th-century royal charters of Rex Bagrat IV of Georgia. Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters, historical documents, manuscripts and inscriptions.^[54] Mkhedruli was used for non-religious purposes only and represented the "civil", "imperial" and "secular" script.^[55] ^[56]

Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the 2 other scripts, though Khutsuri (Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli) was used until the 19th century. Mkhedruli became the universal writing Georgian organisation outside of the Church building in the 19th century with the establishment and evolution of printed Georgian fonts.^[57]

Grade of Mkhedruli letters [edit]

Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri messages and making the complete outlines in all of its letters. Mkhedruli letters are written in the four-linear organisation, similar to Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli becomes more than round and free in writing. It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets, Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri. Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more than free calligraphy develops.^[58]

Case of one of the oldest Mkhedruli-written texts found in the royal charter of Rex Bagrat Four of Georgia, 11th century.

"Gurgen : King : of Kings : swell-grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates"

Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli, 1187 Advertisement.

Modern Georgian alphabet [edit]

The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters:

ა ani	ბ bani	გ gani	დ doni	ე eni	ვ vini	ზ zeni	თ tani	ი ini	კ k'ani	ლ lasi
მ mani	ნ nari	ო oni	პ p'ari	ჟ zhani	რ rae	ს sani	ტ t'ari	უ uni	ფ pari	ქ kani
ღ ghani	ყ q'ari	შ shini	ჩ chini	ც tsani	ძ dzili	წ ts'ili	ჭ ch'ari	ხ khani	ჯ jani	ჰ hae

Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet [edit]

The Guild for the Spreading of Literacy amid Georgians, founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879, discarded 5 letters from the Georgian alphabet that had get redundant:^[25]

ჱ he	ჲ hie	ჳ vie	ჴ qari	ჵ hoe

ჱ (he) /eɪ/, Svan /eː/, sometimes called "ei"^[59] or "e-merve" ("8th e"),^[60] was equivalent to ეჲ ey, equally in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist'ey 'Christ'.
ჲ (hie) /je/, also called yota,^[60] appeared instead of ი (ini) later a vowel, only came to have the aforementioned pronunciation every bit ი (ini) and was replaced past information technology. Thus ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist'ey "Christ" is at present written ქრისტე krist'e.
ჳ (vie) /uɪ/, Svan /west/^[60] came to be pronounced the same as ვი 6 and was replaced past that sequence, as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi "others'".
ჴ (qari, hari) /q⁽ʰ⁾/ ^[60] came to be pronounced the same as ხ (khani), and was replaced by it. eastward.grand. ჴლმწიფე became ხელმწიფე "sovereign".
ჵ (hoe) /oː/^[lx] was used for the interjection hoi! and is now spelled ჰოი. As well used in Bats for the /ʕ/ or /ɦ/ audio.

All merely ჵ (hoe) continue to exist used in the Svan alphabet; ჲ (hie) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets likewise, for the y-sound /j/. Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the brusque time they were written in Mkhedruli script.

Letters added to other alphabets [edit]

Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages too Georgian. Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian, while others required boosted letters:

ჶ fi	ჷ shva	ჸ elifi	ჹ turned gani	ჺ aini	ჼ modifier letter nar	ჽ aen	ჾ difficult sign	ჿ labial sign

ჶ (fi "phi") is used in Laz and Svan, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhaz.^[2] It derives from the Greek letter Φ (phi).
ჷ (shva "schwa"), also chosen yn, is used for the schwa audio in Svan and Mingrelian, and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian.^[2]
ჸ (elifi "alif") is used in for the glottal cease in Svan and Mingrelian.^[ii] Information technology is a reversed ⟨ყ⟩ (q'ari).
ჹ (turned gani) was once used for [ɢ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages.^[2]
ჼ (modifier nar) is used in Bats. It nasalizes the preceding vowel.^[61]
ჺ (aini "ain") is occasionally used for [ʕ] in Bats.^[2] It derives from the Arabic alphabetic character ⟨ﻋ⟩ ('own)
ჽ (aen) was used in the Ossetian language when information technology was written in the Georgian script. It was pronounced [ə].^[62]
ჾ (hard sign) was used in Abkhaz for velarization of the preceding consonant.^[63]
ჿ (labial sign) was used in Abkhaz for labialization of the preceding consonant.^[63]

Handwriting of Mkhedruli [edit]

The following tabular array shows the stroke order and management of each Mkhedruli letter of the alphabet:^[64] ^[65] ^[66]

ზ, ო, and ხ (zeni, oni, khani) are most ever written without the pocket-sized tick at the end, while the handwritten form of ჯ (jani) often uses a vertical line, (sometimes with a taller ascender, or with a diagonal cross bar); even when it is written at a diagonal, the cross-bar is generally shorter than in print.

Only four letters are ten-height, with neither ascenders nor descenders: ა, თ, ი, ო.
Thirteen have ascenders, like b or d in English: ბ, ზ, მ, ნ, პ, რ, ს, შ, ჩ, ძ, წ, ხ, ჰ
An equal number take descenders, similar p or q in English: გ, დ, ე, ვ, კ, ლ, ჟ, ტ, უ, ფ, ღ, ყ, ც
Iii letters have both ascenders and descenders, like þ in Erstwhile English: ქ, ჭ, and (in handwriting) ჯ. წ has both ascender and descender in impress, and sometimes in handwriting.

Variation [edit]

There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the messages. For case, the peak circumvolve of ზ (zeni) and the top stroke of რ (rae) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart (that is, counter-clockwise starting at 3 o'clock, and upwardly – see the external-link department for videos of people writing).

Other common variants:

გ (gani) may exist written like ვ (vini) with a closed loop at the bottom.
დ (doni) is frequently written with a simple loop at top, .
კ, ც, and ძ (k'ani, tsani, dzili) are by and large written with straight, vertical lines at the top, so that for example ც (tsani) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side.
ლ (lasi) is frequently written with a single arc, . Even when all 3 are written, they're generally not all the same size, as they are in print, but rather riding on 1 wide arc like 2 dimples in information technology.
Rarely, ო (oni) is written as a right bending, .
რ (rae) is ofttimes written with one arc, , like a Latin ⟨h⟩.
ტ (t'ari) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl, rather than two small-scale circles as in print, or equally an O with a directly vertical line intersecting the tiptop. It may too exist rotated a chip clockwise, with the minor circles further to the right and not as close to the top.
წ (ts'ili) is generally written with a circular basin at the bottom, . Some other variation features a triangular basin.
ჭ (ch'ari) may be written without the claw at the acme, and oftentimes with a completely straight vertical line.
ჱ (he) may be written without the loop, like a conflation of ს and ჰ.
ჯ (jani) is sometimes written then that it looks similar a hooked version of the Latin "X"

Similar messages [edit]

Several letters are similar and may exist confused at first, especially in handwriting.

For ვ (vini) and კ (k'ani), the critical departure is whether the top is a full arc or a (more-or-less) vertical line.
For ვ (vini) and გ (gani), it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed (a loop). The same is truthful of უ (uni) and შ (shini); in handwriting, the tops may look the same. Similarly ს (sani) and ხ (khani).
For კ (k'ani) and პ (p'ari), the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or higher up x-acme, and whether it'due south written height-down or bottom-upward.
ძ (dzili) is written with a vertical top.

Ligatures, abbreviations and calligraphy [edit]

Asomtavruli is ofttimes highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures, intertwined letters, and placed letters inside letters or other such monograms.^[67]

A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of Rex Vakhtang I of Iberia, Ⴂ Ⴌ (გნ, GN)

A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ (და, da) "and"

Nuskhuri, similar Asomtavruli, is besides often highly stylized. Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra, including diacritics called karagma, which resemble titla. Because writing materials such equally vellum were scarce and therefore precious, abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography past the 11th century.^[68]

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი (romeli) "which"

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე (iesu kriste) "Jesus Christ"

Mkhedruli, in the 11th to 17th centuries besides came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory, requiring adherence to a complex arrangement.^[69]

A Mkhedruli ligature of და (da) "and"

Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and Rex Archil of Imereti

Typefaces [edit]

Georgian scripts come in but a unmarried typeface, though word processors can apply automated ("fake")^[70] oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text. Traditionally, Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles, where Latin script might apply assuming or italic blazon.

Punctuation [edit]

In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation, diverse combinations of dots were used as discussion dividers and to carve up phrases, clauses, and paragraphs. In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries, these were written equally dashes, similar −, = and =−. In the 10th century, clusters of ane (·), 2 (:), 3 (჻) and six (჻჻) dots (later sometimes pocket-size circles) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text. 1 dot indicated a "minor stop" (presumably a unproblematic word break), two dots marked or separated "special words", three dots for a "bigger stop" (such as the appositive name and championship "the sovereign Alexander", beneath, or the title of the Gospel of Matthew, in a higher place), and half dozen dots were to indicate the end of the sentence. Starting in the 11th century, marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use. An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word, and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative judgement. From the 12th century on, these were replaced with the semicolon (the Greek question mark). In the 18th century, Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system once more, with commas, single dots, and double dots used to mark "complete", "incomplete", and "final" sentences, respectively.^[71] For the virtually office, Georgian today uses the punctuation equally in international usage of the Latin script.^[72]

Signature of Rex Alexander II of Kakheti, with the divider ⟨჻⟩
ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე
"The sovereign Alexander"

Summary [edit]

This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns, including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets (shown with a blue background), obsolete in Georgian merely nevertheless used in other alphabets (green background), or additional letters in languages other than Georgian (pink background). The "national" transliteration is the organisation used past the Georgian government, whereas "Laz" is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey. The table as well shows the traditional numeric values of the letters.^[73]

Letters				Unicode (mkhedruli)	Proper noun	IPA	Transcriptions				Numeric value
asomtavruli	nuskhuri	mkhedruli	mtavruli	Unicode (mkhedruli)	Proper noun	IPA	National	ISO 9984	BGN	Laz	Numeric value
Ⴀ	ⴀ	ა	Ა	U+10D0	ani	/ɑ/, Svan /a, æ/	A a	A a	A a	A a	1
Ⴁ	ⴁ	ბ	Ბ	U+10D1	bani	/b/	B b	B b	B b	B b	ii
Ⴂ	ⴂ	გ	Გ	U+10D2	gani	/ɡ/	Grand one thousand	1000 g	M g	G g	3
Ⴃ	ⴃ	დ	Დ	U+10D3	doni	/d/	D d	D d	D d	D d	4
Ⴄ	ⴄ	ე	Ე	U+10D4	eni	/ɛ/	E due east	E east	E eastward	E e	v
Ⴅ	ⴅ	ვ	Ვ	U+10D5	vini	/v/	V 5	V v	Five five	V v	vi
Ⴆ	ⴆ	ზ	Ზ	U+10D6	zeni	/z/	Z z	Z z	Z z	Z z	7
Ⴡ	ⴡ	ჱ	Ჱ	U+10F1	he	/eɪ/, Svan /eː/	—	Ē ē	Ey ey	—	eight
Ⴇ	ⴇ	თ	Თ	U+10D7	tani	/t⁽ʰ⁾/	T t	T' t'	T' t'	T t	9
Ⴈ	ⴈ	ი	Ი	U+10D8	ini	/i/	I i	I i	I i	I i	10
Ⴉ	ⴉ	კ	Კ	U+10D9	thou'ani	/kʼ/	M' k'	Grand k	Thou k	Ǩ ǩ	twenty
Ⴊ	ⴊ	ლ	Ლ	U+10DA	lasi	/l/	Fifty l	L l	L l	L l	xxx
Ⴋ	ⴋ	მ	Მ	U+10DB	mani	/m/	M yard	M one thousand	M yard	M chiliad	40
Ⴌ	ⴌ	ნ	Ნ	U+10DC	nari	/northward/	N due north	Northward n	Due north n	N north	l
Ⴢ	ⴢ	ჲ	Ჲ	U+10F2	hie	/je/, Mingrelian, Laz, & Svan /j/	—	Y y	J j	Y y	60
Ⴍ	ⴍ	ო	Ო	U+10DD	oni	/ɔ/, Svan /ɔ, œ/	O o	O o	O o	O o	70
Ⴎ	ⴎ	პ	Პ	U+10DE	p'ari	/pʼ/	P' p'	P p	P p	P̌ p̌	80
Ⴏ	ⴏ	ჟ	Ჟ	U+10DF	zhani	/ʒ/	Zh zh	Ž ž	Zh zh	J j	90
Ⴐ	ⴐ	რ	Რ	U+10E0	rae	/r/	R r	R r	R r	R r	100
Ⴑ	ⴑ	ს	Ს	U+10E1	sani	/south/	S s	Due south s	S southward	South s	200
Ⴒ	ⴒ	ტ	Ტ	U+10E2	t'ari	/tʼ/	T' t'	T t	T t	Ť t̆	300
Ⴣ	ⴣ	ჳ	Ჳ	U+10F3	vie	/uɪ/, Svan /w/	—	W w	—	—	400^[74]
Ⴓ	ⴓ	უ	Უ	U+10E3	uni	/u/, Svan /u, y/	U u	U u	U u	U u	400^[74]
Ⴧ	ⴧ	ჷ	Ჷ	U+10F7	yn, schva	Mingrelian & Svan /ə/	—	—	—	—	—
Ⴔ	ⴔ	ფ	Ფ	U+10E4	pari	/p⁽ʰ⁾/	P p	P' p'	P' p'	P p	500
Ⴕ	ⴕ	ქ	Ქ	U+10E5	kani	/one thousand⁽ʰ⁾/	M k	K' yard'	M' k'	K one thousand	600
Ⴖ	ⴖ	ღ	Ღ	U+10E6	ghani	/ɣ/	Gh gh	Ḡ ḡ	Gh gh	Ğ ğ	700
Ⴗ	ⴗ	ყ	Ყ	U+10E7	q'ari	/qʼ/	Q' q'	Q q	Q q	Q q	800
—	—	ჸ	Ჸ	U+10F8	elif	Mingrelian & Svan /ʔ/	—	—	—	—	—
Ⴘ	ⴘ	შ	Შ	U+10E8	shini	/ʃ/	Sh sh	Š š	Sh sh	Ş ş	900
Ⴙ	ⴙ	ჩ	Ჩ	U+10E9	chini	/tʃ⁽ʰ⁾/	Ch ch	Č' č'	Ch' ch'	Ç ç	1000
Ⴚ	ⴚ	ც	Ც	U+10EA	tsani	/ts⁽ʰ⁾/	Ts ts	C' c'	Ts' ts'	Ʒ ʒ	2000
Ⴛ	ⴛ	ძ	Ძ	U+10EB	dzili	/dz/	Dz dz	J j	Dz dz	Ž ž	3000
Ⴜ	ⴜ	წ	Წ	U+10EC	ts'ili	/tsʼ/	Ts' ts'	C c	Ts ts	Ǯ ǯ	4000
Ⴝ	ⴝ	ჭ	Ჭ	U+10ED	ch'ari	/tʃʼ/	Ch' ch'	Č č	Ch ch	Ç̌ ç̌	5000
Ⴞ	ⴞ	ხ	Ხ	U+10EE	khani	/χ/	Kh kh	Ten 10	Kh kh	X x	6000
Ⴤ	ⴤ	ჴ	Ჴ	U+10F4	qari, hari	/q⁽ʰ⁾/	—	H̱ ẖ	q'	—	7000
Ⴟ	ⴟ	ჯ	Ჯ	U+10EF	jani	/dʒ/	J j	J̌ ǰ	J j	C c	8000
Ⴠ	ⴠ	ჰ	Ჰ	U+10F0	hae	/h/	H h	H h	H h	H h	9000
Ⴥ	ⴥ	ჵ	Ჵ	U+10F5	hoe	/oː/, Bats /ʕ, ɦ/	—	Ō ō	—	—	10000
—	—	ჶ	Ჶ	U+10F6	fi	Laz /f/	—	F f	—	F f	—
—	—	ჹ	Ჹ	U+10F9	turned gani	Dagestanian languages /ɢ/ in evangelical literature^[2]	—	—	—	—	—
—	—	ჺ	Ჺ	U+10FA	aini	Bats /ʕ/ ^[2]	—	—	—	—	—
—	—	ჼ	—	U+10FC	modifier nar	Bats /◌̃/ nasalization of preceding vowel^[61]	—	—	—	—	—
Ⴭ	ⴭ	ჽ	Ჽ	U+10FD	aen^[63]	Ossetian /ə/ ^[62]	—	—	—	—	—
—	—	ჾ	Ჾ	U+10FE	hard sign^[63]	Abkhaz velarization of preceding consonant^[63]	—	—	—	—	—
—	—	ჿ	Ჿ	U+10FF	labial sign^[63]	Abkhaz labialization of preceding consonant^[63]	—	—	—	—	—

Use for other not-Kartvelian languages [edit]

Ossetian text written in Mkhedruli script, from a book on Ossetian folklore published in Southward Ossetia in 1940. The not-Georgian letters ჶ [f] and ჷ [ə] can be seen.

Quondam Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script.

Ossetian language until the 1940s.^[75]
Abkhaz language until the 1940s.^[76]
Ingush language (historically), later on replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times.^[77]
Chechen language (historically), later replaced in the 17th century past Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modernistic times.^[78]
Avar language (historically), later replaced in the 17th century past Standard arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times.^[79] ^[80]
Turkish language and Azeri language. A Turkish Gospel, dictionary, poems, medical book dating from the 18th century.^[81]
Persian linguistic communication. The 18th-century Persian translation of the Standard arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.
Armenian linguistic communication. In the Armenian community in Tbilisi, the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries, and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.^[82]
Russian language. In the collections of the National Middle of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the belatedly 18th and early 19th centuries.
Other Northeast Caucasian languages. The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century.^[83]

Calculating [edit]

The Georgian letter ⟨ღ⟩ (ghani) is often used as a love or heart symbol online.

The Georgian letter of the alphabet ⟨ლ⟩ (lasi) is sometimes used as a mitt or fist in emoticons ( ex: ლ(╹◡╹ლ) )

Unicode [edit]

The get-go Georgian script was included in Unicode Standard in October 1991 with the release of version 1.0. In creating the Georgian Unicode block, important roles were played by German Jost Gippert, a linguist of Kartvelian studies, and American-Irish gaelic linguist and script-encoder Michael Everson, who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems.^[84] Meaning contributions were also fabricated past Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili^[85] (not to exist mistaken with the Prime number Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili).

Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official condition for beingness Georgia's internationalized domain name script for (.გე).^[86]

Mtavruli letters were added in Unicode version eleven.0 in June 2018.^[87] They are upper-case letter messages with like letterforms to Mkhedruli, but with descenders shifted to a higher place the baseline, with a wider fundamental oval, and with the top slightly higher than the ascender peak.^[88] ^[89] ^[90] Before this addition, font creators included Mtavruli in various means. Some fonts came in pairs, of which ane had lowercase letters and the other capital; some Unicode fonts placed Mtavruli letterforms in the Asomtavruli range (U+10A0-U+10CF) or in the Individual Apply Area, and some ASCII-based ones mapped them to the ASCII majuscule letters.^[53]

Blocks [edit]

Georgian characters are found in three Unicode blocks. The first block (U+10A0–U+10FF) is simply chosen Georgian. Mkhedruli (modern Georgian) occupies the U+10D0–U+10FF range (shown in the bottom half of the first table beneath) and Asomtavruli occupies the U+10A0–U+10CF range (shown in the top half of the same table). The second block is the Georgian Supplement (U+2D00–U+2D2F), and it contains Nuskhuri.^[ii] Mtavruli capitals are included in the Georgian Extended cake (U+1C90–U+1CBF).

Mtavruli is defined as the upper case, but non title case, of Mkhedruli, and Asomtavruli as the upper case and title case of Nuskhuri.^[91]

Georgian ^[1] ^[two] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
	0	1	2	iii	four	5	6	7	eight	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+10Ax	Ⴀ	Ⴁ	Ⴂ	Ⴃ	Ⴄ	Ⴅ	Ⴆ	Ⴇ	Ⴈ	Ⴉ	Ⴊ	Ⴋ	Ⴌ	Ⴍ	Ⴎ	Ⴏ
U+10Bx	Ⴐ	Ⴑ	Ⴒ	Ⴓ	Ⴔ	Ⴕ	Ⴖ	Ⴗ	Ⴘ	Ⴙ	Ⴚ	Ⴛ	Ⴜ	Ⴝ	Ⴞ	Ⴟ
U+10Cx	Ⴠ	Ⴡ	Ⴢ	Ⴣ	Ⴤ	Ⴥ		Ⴧ						Ⴭ
U+10Dx	ა	ბ	გ	დ	ე	ვ	ზ	თ	ი	კ	ლ	მ	ნ	ო	პ	ჟ
U+10Ex	რ	ს	ტ	უ	ფ	ქ	ღ	ყ	შ	ჩ	ც	ძ	წ	ჭ	ხ	ჯ
U+10Fx	ჰ	ჱ	ჲ	ჳ	ჴ	ჵ	ჶ	ჷ	ჸ	ჹ	ჺ	჻	ჼ	ჽ	ჾ	ჿ
Notes 1. ^ As of Unicode version 14.0 2. ^ Greyness areas betoken non-assigned code points

Georgian Supplement ^[ane] ^[2] Official Unicode Consortium lawmaking chart (PDF)
	0	i	ii	three	4	5	6	seven	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+2D0x	ⴀ	ⴁ	ⴂ	ⴃ	ⴄ	ⴅ	ⴆ	ⴇ	ⴈ	ⴉ	ⴊ	ⴋ	ⴌ	ⴍ	ⴎ	ⴏ
U+2D1x	ⴐ	ⴑ	ⴒ	ⴓ	ⴔ	ⴕ	ⴖ	ⴗ	ⴘ	ⴙ	ⴚ	ⴛ	ⴜ	ⴝ	ⴞ	ⴟ
U+2D2x	ⴠ	ⴡ	ⴢ	ⴣ	ⴤ	ⴥ		ⴧ						ⴭ
Notes one. ^ As of Unicode version xiv.0 2. ^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

Georgian Extended ^[1] ^[2] Official Unicode Consortium lawmaking chart (PDF)
	0	i	2	3	4	5	6	seven	8	9	A	B	C	D	East	F
U+1C9x	Ა	Ბ	Გ	Დ	Ე	Ვ	Ზ	Თ	Ი	Კ	Ლ	Მ	Ნ	Ო	Პ	Ჟ
U+1CAx	Რ	Ს	Ტ	Უ	Ფ	Ქ	Ღ	Ყ	Შ	Ჩ	Ც	Ძ	Წ	Ჭ	Ხ	Ჯ
U+1CBx	Ჰ	Ჱ	Ჲ	Ჳ	Ჴ	Ჵ	Ჶ	Ჷ	Ჸ	Ჹ	Ჺ			Ჽ	Ჾ	Ჿ
Notes one. ^ As of Unicode version 14.0 2. ^ Greyness areas indicate not-assigned code points

Non-Unicode encodings [edit]

Mac Bone Georgian is an unofficial^{[ description needed ]} character encoding created by Michael Everson for Georgian on archetype Mac OS. It is an extended ASCII encoding, using the 128 code points from 0x80 through 0xFF to represent the characters of the Asomtavruli and Mkhedruli scripts plus a number of widely-used symbols non included in 7-bit ASCII.^[92]

Keyboard layouts [edit]

Below is the standard Georgian-linguistic communication keyboard layout, the traditional layout of transmission typewriters.

"
„

1
!

2
?

3
№

four
§

five
%

6
:

7
.

8
;

9
,

0
/

-
_

+
=

←
^Backspace

_{Tab key}

ღ

ჯ

უ

კ

ე ჱ

ნ

გ

შ

წ

ზ

ხ ჴ

ც

)
(

_{Caps lock}

ფ ჶ

ძ

ვ ჳ

თ

ა

პ

რ

ო

ლ

დ

ჟ

_{Enter key}
↵

_{Shift fundamental}
↑

ჭ

ჩ

ყ

ს

მ

ი ჲ

ტ

ქ

ბ

ჰ ჵ

_{Shift key}
↑

_{Control key}

_{Win central}

_{Alt primal}

_{Infinite bar}

_{AltGr key}

_{Win cardinal}

_{Bill of fare key}

_{Control cardinal}

Gallery [edit]

Gallery of Asomtavruli, Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts.

Gallery of Asomtavruli [edit]

Asomtavruli of the 6th and seventh centuries

Gallery of Nuskhuri [edit]

Nuskhuri of eighth to 10th centuries
Nuskhuri of Jruchi Gospels, 13th century
Nuskhuri of the 11th century
Nuskhuri by Nikrai, 12th century

Gallery of Mkhedruli [edit]

References [edit]

^ Oldest found Georgian inscription so far. Verbal date of introduction is unclear.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^{one thousand} ^h ⁱ ^j Unicode Standard, Five. vi.3. U10A0, p. three
^ ^a ^b Shanidze 2000, p. 444.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Seibt, Werner. "The Creation of the Caucasian Alphabets every bit Phenomenon of Cultural History".
^ Machavariani 2011, p. 329.
^ Hüning, Vogl & Moliner 2012, p. 299.
^ "Georgian alphabet granted cultural heritage condition". Agenda.ge. 10 March 2015. Archived from the original on 1 Dec 2016. Retrieved thirty November 2016.
^ "Living culture of three writing systems of the Georgian alphabet". Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 30 Nov 2016.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hewitt 1995, p. 4.
^ West 2010, p. 230: Archaeological work in the last decade has confirmed that a Georgian alphabet did be very early in Georgia's history, with the first examples being dated from the 5th century C.E.
^ Rapp 2003, p. 19: footnote 43: "The date of the supposed grave mark is hopelessly circumstantial ... I cannot support Chilashvili'south dubious hypothesis."
^ Rayfield 2013.
^ ^a ^b Rapp 2010, p. 139.
^ Rapp 2006, p. 38.
^ ^a ^b Kemertelidze 1999, pp. 228-.
^ Koryun (1981). "The life of Mashtots". armenianhouse.org. Translated by Bedros Norehad. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2018-04-24 .
^ Rayfield 2013, p. 19: "The Georgian alphabet seems unlikely to accept a pre-Christian origin, for the major archaeological monument of the 1st century 4IX the bilingual Armazi gravestone commemorating Serafua, daughter of the Georgian viceroy of Mtskheta, is inscribed in Greek and Aramaic only. It has been believed, and not but in Armenia, that all the Caucasian alphabets — Armenian, Georgian and Caucaso-Albanian — were invented in the 4th century by the Armenian scholar Mesrop Mashtots.<...> The Georgian chronicles The Life of Kartli – assert that a Georgian script was invented two centuries before Christ, an assertion unsupported by archaeology. In that location is a possibility that the Georgians, like many minor nations of the expanse, wrote in a foreign language — Western farsi, Aramaic, or Greek — and translated dorsum every bit they read."
^ Bowersock, Brown & Grabar 1999, p. 289: Alphabets. "Mastoc' was a charismatic visionary who accomplished his chore at a fourth dimension when Armenia stood in danger of losing both its national identity, through partition, and its newly acquired Christian faith, through Sassanian pressure and reversion to paganism. By preaching in Armenian, he was able to undermine and co-opt the discourse founded in native tradition, and to create a counterweight against both Byzantine and Syriac cultural hegemony in the church. Mastoc' also created the Georgian and Caucasian-Albanian alphabets, based on the Armenian model."
^ Acharian, Hrachia (1984). Հայոց գրերը [The Armenian Script] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Hayastan Publishing. p. 181. «Կասկածել Կորյունի վրա՝ նշանակում է առհասարակ ուրանալ պատմությունը։» translation: "To incertitude Koryun['s account] means to deny history itself.
^ Acharian, Hrachia (1984). Հայոց գրերը [The Armenian Script] (in Armenian). Yerevan: Hayastan Publishing. p. 391. «408 ... հնարում է վրաց գրերը»
^ Thomson 1996, pp. xxii–xxiii.
^ Rapp 2003, p. 450: "There is also the claim advanced past Koriwn in his saintly biography of Mashtoc' (Mesrop) that the Georgian script had been invented at the direction of Mashtoc'. Yet it is within the realm of possibility that this tradition, repeated by many subsequently Armenian historians, may not have been part of the original fifth-century text at all but added afterward 607. Significantly, all of the extant MSS containing The Life of Mashtoc* were copied centuries afterwards the split. Consequently, scribal manipulation reflecting post-schism (peculiarly anti-Georgian) attitudes potentially contaminates all MSS copied after that fourth dimension. Information technology is therefore conceivable, though not however proven, that valuable information about Georgia transmitted by pre-schism Armenian texts was excised by later, post-schism individuals."
^ Greppin 1981, pp. 449–456.
^ Haarmann 2012, p. 299.
^ ^a ^b Daniels 1996, p. 367.
^ Machavariani 2011, p. 177.
^ ქსე, ტ. 7, თბ., 1984, გვ. 651–652
^ შანიძე ა., ქართული საბჭოთა ენციკლოპედია, ტ. 2, გვ. 454–455, თბ., 1977 წელი
^ კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 218–219
^ ე. მაჭავარიანი, მწიგნობრობაჲ ქართული, თბილისი, 1989
^ პ. ინგოროყვა, „შოთა რუსთაველი", „მნათობი", 1966, No. 3, გვ. 116
^ Machavariani 2011, pp. 121–122.
^ რ. პატარიძე, ქართული ასომთავრული, თბილისი, 1980, გვ. 151, 260–261
^ ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 185–187
^ ე. მაჭავარიანი, ქართული ანბანი, თბილისი, 1977, გვ. 5–6
^ ელენე მაჭავარიანი, ენციკლოპედია „ქართული ენა", თბილისი, 2008, გვ. 403–404
^ ვ. სილოგავა, ენციკლოპედია „ქართული ენა", თბილისი, 2008, გვ. 269–271
^ ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 124–126
^ Machavariani 2011, p. 120.
^ Machavariani 2011, p. 129.
^ ივ. ჯავახიშვილი, ქართული დამწერლობათა-მცოდნეობა ანუ პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1949, 127–128
^ Mchedlidze 2013, p. 105.
^ ^a ^b კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 219
^ გ. აბრამიშვილი, ატენის სიონის უცნობი წარწერები, "მაცნე" (ისტ. და არქეოლოგ. სერია), 1976, No. c2, გვ. 170
^ კ. დანელია, ზ. სარჯველაძე, ქართული პალეოგრაფია, თბილისი, 1997, გვ. 218
^ ე. მაჭავარიანი, ქართული ანბანი, თბილისი, 1977
^ Mchedlidze 2013, p. 107.
^ "Lasha Kintsurashvili: Almost Georgian calligraphy". Archived from the original on 2012-05-14. Retrieved 2012-01-03 .
^ Gillam 2003, p. 249.
^ (in Georgian) ილია მეორე ერს ქართული ენის დაცვისკენ კიდევ ერთხელ მოუწოდებს Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine საქინფორმ.გე
^ Nakanishi 1990, p. 22.
^ Allen & Gugushvili 1937, p. 324.
^ ^a ^b Everson, Michael; Gujejiani, Nika; Razmadze, Akaki (January 24, 2016). "Proposal for the addition of Georgian characters to the UCS" (PDF). Unicode Technical Commission Document Registry. Archived (PDF) from the original on September eleven, 2017. Retrieved June xiv, 2018.
^ ატენის სიონის უცნობი წარწერები, აბრამიშვილი, გვ. 170-ane
^ Katzner & Miller 2002, p. 118.
^ Chambers Encyclopedia 1901, p. 165.
^ Putkaradze, T. (2006), "Evolution of the Georgian writing system", History of Georgian linguistic communication, p. paragraph Two, 2.one.5
^ მაჭავარიანი, თბილისი, 1977
^ Shanidze 1973, p. eighteen.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^{due east} Otar Jishkariani, Praise of the Alphabet, 1986, Tbilisi, p. one
^ ^a ^b Ager, Simon (northward.d.). "Bats alphabet, pronunciation and language". Omniglot. Archived from the original on 2018-08-03. Retrieved 2018-04-24 .
^ ^a ^b Ager, Simon (n.d.). "Ossetian linguistic communication, alphabet and pronunciation". omniglot.com. Archived from the original on 2018-04-24. Retrieved 2018-04-24 .
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Everson, Michael; Melkadze, Ninell; Pentzlin, Karl; Yevlampiev, Ilya (17 Feb 2010). "Proposal for encoding Georgian and Nuskhuri messages for Ossetian and Abkhaz" (PDF). unicode.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on vi July 2017. Retrieved 2018-04-24 .
^ Aronson 1990, pp. 21–25.
^ Paolini & Cholokashvili 1629.
^ Mchedlidze 2013, p. 110.
^ Ingorokva, Pavle ქართული დამწერლობის ძეგლები ანტიკური ხანისა (The monuments of aboriginal Georgian script) Archived 2012-03-09 at the Wayback Machine
^ Shanidze 2003.
^ შანიძე, 2003
^ Simonson, Mark (20 June 2005). "Fake vs. True Italics". Mark Simonson Studio. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 2018-04-24 .
^ Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia, Five. 8, p. 231, Tbilisi, 1984
^ Gillam 2003, p. 252.
^ Aronson 1990, pp. thirty–31.
^ ^a ^b ჳ and უ have the same numeric value (400)
^ George 2009, p. 104.
^ The Abkhazians: A Handbook, George Hewitt, p. 171
^ Язык, история и культура вайнахов, И. Ю Алироев p.85, Чех-Инг. изд.-полигр. об-ние "Книга", 1990
^ Чеченский язык, И. Ю. Алироев, p.24, Академия, 1999
^ Грузинско-дагестанские языковые контакты, Маджид Шарипович Халилов p.29, Наука, 2004
^ История аварцев, М. Г Магомедов p.150, Дагестанский гос. университет, 2005
^ Enwall 2010, pp. 144–145.
^ Enwall 2010, p. 137.
^ Enwall 2010, pp. 137–138.
^ უნიკოდში ქართულის ასახვის ისტორია (History of the Georgian Unicode) Archived 2014-03-09 at the Wayback Machine Georgian Unicode fonts past BPG-InfoTech
^ Font Contributors Acknowledgements Archived 2018-03-22 at the Wayback Machine Unicode
^ (in Georgian) საქართველოში საინტერნეტო მისამართები მხედრული ანბანით დაიწერება Archived 2016-01-22 at the Wayback Machine Rustavi 2
^ "Unicode xi.0.0". Unicode Consortium. June five, 2018. Archived from the original on June 6, 2018. Retrieved June 5, 2018.
^ "Mtavruli for Perfect Bicameral Fonts". BPG Georgian Fonts. February 24, 2016. Archived from the original on January 26, 2018. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
^ "The Unicode Standard, Version 11.0 - U110-1C90.pdf" (PDF). Unicode.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2018-03-25 .
^ Everson, Michael; Gujejiani, Nika; Vakhtangishvili, Giorgi; Razmadze, Akaki (2017-06-24). "Action programme for the complete representation of Mtavruli characters" (PDF). Unicode Technical Committee Document Registry. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-06-15. Retrieved 2018-01-26 .
^ "7: Europe-I: Modern and Liturgical Scripts" (PDF). The Unicode Standard Version xi.0 – Core Specification. Unicode Consortium. June v, 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
^ Everson, Michael (2002-02-20). "Mac OS Georgian to Unicode table". Evertype . Retrieved 2020-12-07 .

Sources [edit]

Allen, William Edward David; Gugushvili, A., eds. (1937). Georgica: A Periodical of Georgian and Caucasian Studies (iv–v): 324.
Aronson, Howard Isaac (1990). Georgian: A Reading Grammar. Columbus, OH: Slavica Publishers. ISBN978-0-89357-207-five.
Bowersock, Glen Warren; Chocolate-brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (1999). Belatedly Artifact: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard Academy Press. ISBN978-0-674-51173-half dozen.
"Georgia". Chambers's encyclopaedia; a dictionary of universal cognition. Vol. v. London: Westward. & R. Chambers. 1901.
Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-507993-7.
Enwall, Joakim (2010). "Turkish texts in Georgian script: Sociolinguistic and ethno-linguistic aspects". In Boeschoten, Hendrik; Rentzsch, Julian (eds.). Turcology in Mainz. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN978-3-447-06113-1.
George, Julie A. (2009). The Politics of Indigenous Separatism in Russian federation and Georgia. Palgrave Macmillan The states. ISBN978-0-230-10232-3.
Gillam, Richard (2003). Unicode Demystified: A Applied Developer's Guide to the Encoding Standard. Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN978-0-201-70052-7.
Greppin, John A.C. (1981). "Some comments on the origin of the Georgian alphabet". Bazmavep (139): 449–456. *Haarmann, Harald (2012). "Ethnic Conflict and standardisation in the Caucasus". In Matthias Hüning; Ulrike Vogl; Olivier Moliner (eds.). Standard Languages and Multilingualism in European History. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 299. ISBN978-ninety-272-0055-6.
Hewitt, B. Yard. (1995). Georgian: A Structural Reference Grammer. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN978-ninety-272-3802-3.
Hüning, Matthias; Vogl, Ulrike; Moliner, Olivier (2012). Standard Languages and Multilingualism in European History. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN978-ninety-272-0055-6.
Katzner, Kenneth; Miller, Kirk (2002). The Languages of the Globe. Routledge. ISBN978-one-134-53288-9.
Kemertelidze, Nino (1999). "The Origin of Kartuli (Georgian) Writing (Alphabet)". In David Cram; Andrew R. Linn; Elke Nowak (eds.). History of Linguistics 1996. Vol. 1: Traditions in Linguistics Worldwide. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN978-90-272-8382-5.
Machavariani, East. (2011). Georgian manuscripts. Tbilisi.
Mchedlidze, T. (2013). The restored Georgian alphabet. Fulda, Germany.
Nakanishi, Akira (1990). Writing Systems of the World. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN978-0-8048-1654-0.
Paolini, Stefano; Cholokashvili, Nikoloz (1629), Dittionario giorgiano eastward italiano, Rome: Palazzo di Propaganda Fide
Rapp, Stephen H. (2003). Studies in medieval Georgian historiography: early texts and Eurasian contexts. Peeters Publishers. ISBN978-90-429-1318-9.
Rapp, Stephen H. (2006). "Recovering the Pre-National Caucasian Landscape". Mythical Landscapes and then and Now: The Mystification: 13–52.
Rapp, Stephen H. (2010). "Georgian Christianity". In Ken Parry (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-1-4443-3361-9.
Rayfield, Donald (2013). The Literature of Georgia: A History. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN978-0-7007-1163-v.
Shanidze, Mzekala (2000). "Greek influence in Georgian linguistics". In Sylvain Auroux (ed.). History of the Linguistic communication Sciences / Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaften / Histoire des sciences du language. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN978-3-11-019400-5.
Shanidze, Akaki (2003), ქართული ენა [The Georgian Language] (in Georgian), Tbilisi, ISBN978-i-4020-1440-6
Shanidze, Akaki (1973). The Basics of the Georgian language grammer. Tbilisi.
Thomson, Robert W. (1996). Rewriting Caucasian History: The Medieval Armenian Adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles : the Original Georgian Texts and the Armenian Adaptation. Clarendon Press. ISBN978-0-nineteen-826373-9.
West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. ISBN978-1-4381-1913-7.

External links [edit]

Gallery of Mkhedruli, Omniglot page on Mkhedruli which shows some stylistic variations mentioned above
Georgian alphabet blitheness on YouTube, produced by the Ministry building of Education and Science of Georgia. Gives the sound of each letter of the alphabet, illustrates several fonts, and shows the stroke social club of each letter.
Learn Georgian Alphabet Now app Gives the name, pronunciation of each letter, and example words. Shows the stroke society of each letter. Permits cartoon practice and has a quiz to learn the letters.
Lasha Kintsurashvili and Levan Chaganava, submissions to the 2014 International Exhibition of Calligraphy
Reference grammar of Georgian past Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)
Georgian transliteration + Georgian virtual keyboard
"Unicode Code Chart (10A0–10FF) for Georgian scripts" (PDF). (105 KB)
"Transliteration of Georgian" (PDF). (105 KB)